Adverse events following immunization AEFI surveillance is a critical component of ensuring vaccine safety in the populations where the vaccines are being used. Surveillance often begins at the health facility level, where health workers are trained to recognize adverse events from immunizations, and is reported to national regulatory agencies and WHO.
This surveillance is critical for investigating problems that could occur with bad lots of vaccines and mishandling of vaccines in the cold chain improper storage which can contribute to the public perception of the vaccine program.
Technology is increasing the availability of data on health that can be used for infectious disease surveillance, including sources that go beyond that of traditional passive or active surveillance systems. New sources of data include mobile data, electronic health records, and social media.
These sources of data can provide more real-time information to help mitigate outbreaks or improve the health of a population. However, after a couple of years, it was found to overpredict the number of influenza cases given the generic case definition used. The system is no longer active, but is used to help groups develop newer public health analytics. The use of mobile technology to improve systems is an important area for public health also referred to as m-health and has a growing use for surveillance.
Mobile data can monitor the movement of people during an outbreak, and this information can allow health officials to better predict where a given disease will spread. In , there was a typhoid outbreak in Uganda. The Pulse Lab in Kampala provided mobile data to complement data which the Ministry of Health collected on cases. These data sources combined allowed better visualization of the outbreak and where clusters of infections were happening and therefore permitted improved mobilization of resources to respond to the outbreak.
Flowminder is another organization developing the use of mobile technology in outbreak situations. It currently has projects supporting monitoring the spatial patterns of individuals during outbreaks using data from mobile phones. During a cholera outbreak in Haiti in , researchers from Flowminder mapped the movement of people using anonymous data from mobile usage from the affected areas Bengtsson et al. Following the outbreak, the data were analyzed, and it was shown that this was an effective way of mapping the spread of the outbreak.
Many partnerships between academic, programmatic, and global organizations exist to facilitate ongoing infectious disease surveillance and promote global health security. Partnerships can take different forms and often include providing technical and operational support and resources to facilitate ongoing surveillance.
Some examples are as follows. The strategy aims to integrate surveillance being done at the community, health facility, district, and national level to improve the data collected and to conserve resources.
IDSR includes standard case definitions and protocols and involves collecting only data necessary for disease control, often aggregated data. This helps to decrease the work burden at all levels on health staff, is more efficient, and costs less than nonintegrated surveillance. However, the challenge of integrated disease surveillance is that sometimes more information is needed than is readily available to target intervention activities.
The purpose of GOARN is to coordinate a rapid response to international disease emergencies through deployment of resources to the affected countries. GOARN coordinates a multidisciplinary team comprising clinicians, epidemiologists, social mobilization, and communications experts.
The increase in international travel is an important risk factor in the spread of infectious diseases. Travelers can contract many infectious diseases, from common travelers' diarrhea to more serious conditions such as Ebola. GeoSentinel is a global network of clinics assessing travelers' and migrants' health for illnesses acquired while abroad Leder et al.
This network of clinics confirms and registers cases of infectious diseases acquired while traveling. This surveillance information is critical for tracking the movement of diseases and informing guidelines for travel medicine.
Surveillance is an action-oriented public health tool. Time lags in surveillance can affect outcomes if there is not a rapid response with interventions. Surveillance information can be used at the global, regional, national, local, and individual levels. New technologies are being developed to assist with more real-time data dissemination. Surveillance bulletins and reports are a frequently used method for disseminating surveillance information. Many surveillance networks use them to send information to stakeholders and partners involved with the surveillance.
These can be frequent weekly or monthly reports or more infrequent such as annual or biannual surveillance bulletins. These normally include case counts for the disease under surveillance or detection of new outbreaks. The scientific literature peer- and non-peer-reviewed publications and scientific conferences are also important venues for disseminating surveillance data. The audience for publications can be much wider than bulletins since they are accessible by a wide range of individuals.
There can be a long lag-time between data generation and publication. These modes of communication are critical for improving the wealth of available knowledge and advancing research, but are not timely enough to mobilize a response to an outbreak. With the advance of social media and the Internet, there have been innovative strategies for more quickly disseminating surveillance information for rapid public health intervention. It consolidates and verifies reports from media, observers, and news and disseminates via email and their website.
They have a large audience since their information is free and easily available on the Internet. They act as an important early warning of outbreaks to facilitate public health preparedness. Online platforms are creating innovative ways of displaying the surveillance data that are collected. Reports of disease cases come from a series of vetted online sources including ProMED, WHO, and online news outlets and are mapped on an interactive interface allowing users to view the geographic distribution of multiple diseases.
Physicians and individuals can use HealthMap to identify diseases occurring close to them or their travel destination. HealthMap displaying reported measles cases for the past month June , using reports from sources such as media outlets and ProMed newsletters. Other tools include the Health Alert Network HAN at CDC, which is used for quickly disseminating confirmed disease reports and information to medical and public health professionals at a national level.
HAN disseminates four types of information: 1 health alerts where an action required ; 2 health advisories information on health events where no action required , 3 health updates information on given events ; and 4 general public health information. Event-based surveillance entails monitoring cases and outbreaks of disease through formal and informal news and online reporting platforms. Traditional surveillance can miss many outbreaks or delay the opportunity to intervene.
Event-based surveillance includes reports from the community, health facilities, universities as well as media and online sources in order to develop alerts of health situations that are developing. The data and reporting methods are much less structured than other surveillance, but allow for quick detection of events that need to be investigated. Surveillance is in and of itself a critical tool for public health.
Using an existing surveillance network as a platform for surveillance of additional diseases allows streamlining resources and can be a cost-effective measure to improve public health. For example, influenza surveillance is being leveraged to conduct surveillance for other respiratory viral diseases, such as respiratory syncytial virus.
Additionally, the laboratory, clinical, and epidemiological capacity built to run a surveillance network can be utilized for other public health studies. Surveillance sites can be used as platforms for research and special studies. Since infectious disease surveillance sites often conduct surveillance for vaccine-preventable diseases, studies on vaccine effectiveness and vaccine impact can be built on the platform of surveillance.
Vaccine impact studies can use surveillance to demonstrate reduction of disease after introducing an intervention such as a vaccine. These impact studies require baseline data before the vaccine was introduced in order to compare the postvaccine era to the prevaccine introduction disease incidence.
Special studies that gather additional information may complement surveillance disease trends. Vaccine effectiveness studies evaluate the ability of a vaccine to control the disease in a real-world setting, which differs from vaccine efficacy studies where the vaccine impact is estimated in a controlled clinical situation. A good example of this is rotavirus diarrheal sentinel site surveillance, which has been used both to show the decline in rotavirus disease among age groups vaccinated as part of routine immunization and has also been used as a platform to conduct vaccine effectiveness studies.
Estimating the burden of disease at the country or global level with epidemiological models can be a critical part of using surveillance data and advocacy for disease interventions. In many countries, surveillance data alone may not be sufficient to provide informative data for a specific disease for a number of reasons: surveillance data may not be available, there might not be laboratory confirmation, or the data necessary to answer a certain question may not have been collected.
In these situations, models using local and nonlocal data can be very useful. In addition to data from one region being extrapolated to inform on the disease within that region, data from similar regions can also be used to fill in gaps where surveillance is missing. There are many global burden estimation projects updated regularly to give global prevalence and mortality estimates by different government, research, and academic groups for a number of diseases for example, influenza, S.
Burden estimation modeling can also be done on the national level using surveillance data collected locally. Surveillance data have been used in a model to extrapolate the burden of influenza-associated hospitalizations in South Africa, Guatemala, and Kenya using local surveillance data from the country Murray et al.
The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of WHO. Jillian has previously worked on disease burden models for influenza in South Africa and measles globally at WHO. Adam L. At CDC he has worked in the areas of prevention of bacterial pneumonia and influenza in international settings, vaccines, antimicrobial resistance, and patient safety.
He has worked in more than 30 countries and lives in Geneva, Switzerland, where he works at the World Health Organization to coordinate global surveillance for vaccine-preventable diseases such as pneumococcus and rotavirus. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.
International Encyclopedia of Public Health. Published online Oct Jillian Murray and Adam L. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Copyright notice. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVIDrelated research that is available on the COVID resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source.
The goal is to achieve data comparability over time and between countries. TBU is typically used in text-based conversations when planning a meeting or other event, either official or social. Service, Transition, Education, Purpose, and Success. Governmental » Military. Systems Training Employment and Publishing Services.
However, the 10, steps per day goal generally focuses on the number of steps taken, not activity intensity. Therefore, it is important to point out that the 10, steps recommendation is just one way of achieving the required physical activity level. But surveillance involves carrying out many integrated steps by many people:Reporting. Someone has to record the data. Someone has to be responsible for collecting the data from all the reporters and putting it all together. Your email address will not be published.
Hansen dhhs. See our Data Request Policy. Adobe Acrobat Reader format. You can download a free reader from Adobe. Public health surveillance is the ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of data about a health-related event for use in public health action to reduce morbidity and mortality and to improve health.
Public health data can be used in a variety of ways for the prevention and control of disease.
0コメント